Politics terms

Checks and balances The constitutional design giving each branch of government ways to limit the others, so that no branch dominates. Deep state A contested term for a supposed network of unelected officials in government who are said to shape or resist the policies of elected leaders. Executive order A signed directive from the president that manages the operations of the federal government, carrying legal force within the executive branch. Executive privilege The president's qualified power to keep certain internal executive communications confidential from Congress and the courts. Government shutdown A lapse in federal appropriations that forces agencies to suspend non-essential operations until funding is restored. Impoundment A president's refusal to spend money Congress has appropriated, restricted by the Impoundment Control Act of 1974. Inspector general An independent official inside a federal agency who audits and investigates its programs and reports waste, fraud and abuse to Congress. Separation of powers The constitutional division of government into legislative, executive and judicial branches, each with its own distinct powers. Veto The president's power to reject a bill passed by Congress by returning it unsigned with objections. Advice and consent The Senate's constitutional role in approving the president's treaties and major appointments. Appropriations The laws through which Congress grants federal agencies authority to spend money each year on discretionary programs. Authorization bill A law that creates or continues a federal program and sets policy, usually separate from the law that provides its funding. Authorization for Use of Military Force A law in which Congress authorizes the president to use military force, such as the 2001 and 2002 authorizations. Blue slip A Senate Judiciary Committee custom that lets home-state senators block or delay certain judicial nominees from their states. Budget reconciliation A fast-track budget process that lets the Senate pass certain tax and spending legislation by simple majority, without a filibuster. Byrd rule A Senate rule that strips from reconciliation bills any provision that is extraneous to the budget or increases deficits beyond the budget window. CBO score The Congressional Budget Office's nonpartisan estimate of how a bill would change federal spending, revenue and deficits. Censure A formal expression of disapproval by a legislative chamber of one of its members, short of expulsion. Cloture The Senate procedure for ending debate on a measure, normally requiring three-fifths of senators. Conference committee A temporary panel of House and Senate members that negotiates a single version when the chambers pass different bills. Congressional Review Act A 1996 law letting Congress overturn federal agency rules by a simple-majority resolution that is immune to Senate filibuster. Congressional subpoena A legal order from a congressional committee compelling someone to testify or produce documents for an investigation. Contempt of Congress A finding that a person defied Congress, such as by ignoring a subpoena, which can be punished criminally or enforced in court. Continuing resolution A temporary law that keeps federal agencies funded at existing levels when regular appropriations have not been enacted. Discharge petition A House procedure that lets a majority of members force a floor vote on a bill that committee or leadership has refused to schedule. Earmark A provision in legislation that directs federal money to a specific project, recipient or location, often requested by a member of Congress. Filibuster The use of extended debate or the threat of it to delay or block Senate action, effectively requiring 60 votes for most bills. House Rules Committee The House committee that sets the terms of debate and amendment for most major bills before they reach the floor. Impeachment The constitutional process by which the House charges a federal official with misconduct and the Senate tries the charges. Lame-duck session The period after an election, before newly elected members take office, when departing members may still pass legislation. Line-item veto A power, held by many governors but not the president, to reject individual items in a spending bill while signing the rest. Majority leader The top floor leader of the majority party in a chamber of Congress, who controls scheduling in the Senate. Markup The committee meeting at which members debate, amend and vote on a bill before sending it to the full chamber. Motion to recommit A House motion to send a pending bill back to committee, long used by the minority to offer a final amendment before passage. Motion to vacate the chair A House motion declaring the office of Speaker vacant, forcing a vote on whether to remove the sitting Speaker. Nuclear option A Senate maneuver that changes the effective rules by simple majority precedent, bypassing the usual two-thirds requirement. Omnibus bill A single large bill that combines many separate measures, most often a full set of annual spending bills. Pocket veto A veto that occurs when the president does not sign a bill and Congress adjourns, so the bill dies without a chance of override. President pro tempore The Senate's ceremonial presiding officer in the vice president's absence, traditionally the senior majority-party senator. Quorum The minimum number of members who must be present for a legislative body to conduct official business. Recess appointment A presidential appointment made while the Senate is in recess, which lasts only until the end of the next Senate session. Regular order The traditional process of developing and debating legislation through committees, open amendment and separate votes rather than leadership-written packages. Rescission A proposal, under the Impoundment Control Act, to cancel previously appropriated funds, with a fast-track vote in Congress. Senate hold An informal notice by a senator that they will object to unanimous consent to take up a bill or nomination. Speaker of the House The presiding officer and top leader of the U.S. House of Representatives, elected by the full House at the start of each Congress. Suspension of the rules A House shortcut for passing noncontroversial bills quickly with limited debate and a two-thirds vote. Unanimous consent A Senate procedure in which the chamber agrees to a request when no senator objects, used to organize nearly all of its business. Veto override Congress's power to enact a bill over a presidential veto by a two-thirds vote in each chamber. War Powers Resolution A 1973 law limiting the president's ability to commit U.S. forces to hostilities without congressional approval. Whip A party leader in a legislative chamber responsible for counting votes and persuading members to vote with the party. Anti-Federalists Opponents of the 1787 Constitution who feared a powerful national government and demanded a bill of rights. Burkean conservatism A conservatism rooted in Edmund Burke's defense of tradition, gradual reform, prescriptive institutions and skepticism of abstract theory. Chesterton's fence A principle, from G.K. Chesterton, that one should understand why an old rule or institution exists before removing it. Civil society The network of voluntary associations, such as families, churches, clubs and charities, that exist between the individual and the state. Classical liberalism A political philosophy emphasizing individual liberty, limited government, private property, free markets and the rule of law. Consent of the governed The principle that a government's legitimate authority comes from the agreement of the people it rules. Conservatism A political outlook that values tradition, ordered liberty, limited government and gradual change over radical reform. Constitutional republic A system in which officials chosen by the people govern under a constitution that limits their power and protects rights. Equality of opportunity The principle that people should have the same chance to succeed, judged by talent and effort and not by birth, race or connections. Federalism A system dividing governing power between a national government and state governments, each with its own sphere of authority. Fusionism A mid-century conservative synthesis combining traditionalist moral values with free-market libertarian principles and strong anti-communism. Individualism The belief that individuals are the primary unit of moral and political concern, with rights, responsibilities and choices of their own. Libertarianism A political philosophy that makes individual liberty the central value and seeks to minimize coercion, especially by government. Little platoons Edmund Burke's phrase for the small local groups, such as families and neighborhoods, that form the basis of public affection and civic life. National conservatism A current of the right prioritizing the nation-state, cultural cohesion, economic nationalism and government support for family and community. Natural law The view that there is a moral order discoverable by reason that binds all people and against which human laws can be measured. Natural rights The idea that people possess certain rights by virtue of their humanity, which exist prior to and independent of any government. Negative liberty Freedom understood as the absence of interference or coercion by others, especially by government. Neoconservatism A movement, begun among former liberals, favoring a strong military, promotion of democracy abroad and a limited welfare state. Ordered liberty The idea that genuine freedom requires moral and legal structure, and that liberty without order or virtue becomes license. Paleoconservatism A strand of the right that stresses tradition, nationalism, restricted immigration, skepticism of foreign intervention and suspicion of the federal government. Popular sovereignty The principle that ultimate political authority resides in the people, who delegate it to government. Populism A political style that pits ordinary people against a supposedly corrupt or out-of-touch elite, found across the political spectrum. Positive liberty Freedom understood as the capacity to act on one's own will and fulfill one's potential, which may require resources or public support. Postliberalism A school of thought arguing that liberalism's emphasis on individual autonomy has undermined community, and that politics should aim at the common good. Private property The right of individuals and organizations to own, use, exchange and exclude others from assets, a pillar of market economies. Progressivism A political tradition that favors using government to promote social reform, economic fairness and expert-led solutions to public problems. Public choice theory The application of economic analysis to political behavior, treating voters, politicians and bureaucrats as self-interested actors. Rule of law The principle that everyone, including government, is subject to publicly known laws that are applied equally and fairly. Social contract A philosophical idea that government's legitimacy rests on an implicit agreement among free people to form a political community. Subsidiarity The principle that matters should be handled by the smallest, lowest or least centralized authority capable of doing so effectively. The Federalist Papers A series of 85 essays from 1787-1788 by Hamilton, Madison and Jay urging ratification of the Constitution. Tyranny of the majority The danger that a democratic majority will use its power to override the rights and interests of minorities. Apportionment The allocation of the 435 House seats among the states according to population counted in each census. Caucus A meeting of party members to choose candidates or delegates, or a group of legislators who share a party or interest. Citizens United v. FEC The 2010 Supreme Court ruling that the First Amendment bars limits on independent political spending by corporations and unions. Closed primary A primary election in which only voters registered with a party may take part in that party's nomination contest. Coattail effect The tendency of a popular candidate at the top of the ticket to boost the vote for other candidates of the same party. Contingent election The procedure by which the House chooses the president, one vote per state delegation, when no candidate wins an Electoral College majority. Dark money A label for political spending by groups, such as certain nonprofits, that do not have to disclose the original donors. Early voting A system allowing voters to cast ballots in person at designated sites during a period before Election Day. Electoral College The constitutional system in which states' electors, not a direct national vote, formally choose the president and vice president. Electoral Count Act The federal law governing how Congress counts electoral votes, revised in 2022 after the January 6 disputes. Faithless elector A presidential elector who votes for someone other than the candidate they were pledged or expected to support. Gerrymandering Drawing electoral district lines to give one party or group an advantage, typically by packing or cracking opposing voters. Incumbency advantage The electoral edge enjoyed by sitting officeholders over challengers, driven by name recognition, resources and other factors. Majority-minority district A legislative district in which racial or ethnic minority voters make up a majority, often created to comply with the Voting Rights Act. Midterm election The general election held midway through a president's four-year term, in which all House seats and about a third of Senate seats are contested. National Popular Vote Interstate Compact An agreement among states to award their electors to the winner of the national popular vote once enough states join. Open primary A primary election in which voters need not belong to a party to choose which party's ballot they use. Political action committee An organization that raises and spends money from members or donors to support or oppose candidates, subject to federal limits. Ranked-choice voting A voting method in which voters rank candidates, and the lowest finishers are eliminated until one has a majority. Redistricting The redrawing of electoral district boundaries, usually after each ten-year census, to keep districts roughly equal in population. Runoff election A second election between the top finishers when no candidate wins the required share, usually a majority, in the first round. Super PAC A political committee that can raise unlimited sums to support or oppose candidates but may not coordinate with them or give them money. Superdelegate A Democratic National Convention delegate who is a party official or elected leader and is not bound to the primary results. Swing state A state where neither party has a reliable majority, so presidential outcomes there are competitive and decisive. Top-two primary A primary in which all candidates appear on one ballot and the two with the most votes, regardless of party, advance to the general election. Voting Rights Act The 1965 federal law that prohibits racial discrimination in voting and has been amended several times. Bellwether A place or group whose election results have historically matched the national outcome and are watched as an early indicator. Exit poll A survey of voters as they leave polling places, used to explain who voted and why rather than to project results alone. Generic ballot A poll asking voters whether they would vote for a Democrat or a Republican for Congress without naming candidates. Likely voter A pollster's estimate of who will actually vote, used to narrow a sample of adults or registered voters. Margin of error A statistic expressing how much a poll's result might differ from the true value because only a sample was surveyed. Absentee ballot A ballot cast by mail or other means by a voter who will not be at the polling place on Election Day. Automatic voter registration A system in which eligible citizens are registered when they interact with a state agency, such as the DMV, unless they decline. Ballot harvesting The collection and delivery of completed absentee or mail ballots by someone other than the voter, regulated differently in each state. Election certification The formal, legally required confirmation by officials that vote totals are accurate and final. Mail-in voting Voting in which ballots are sent to voters' homes and returned by mail or drop box, instead of cast at a polling place. Noncitizen voting Voting by people who are not U.S. citizens, which is illegal in federal elections but allowed in some local elections. Poll watcher A person designated by a party, candidate or group to observe election procedures at polling places and counting sites. Preclearance A former Voting Rights Act requirement that certain jurisdictions get federal approval before changing election laws. Provisional ballot A ballot cast when a voter's eligibility is in question, counted only after officials verify it. Recount A second count of ballots in a close contest, triggered automatically or on request, to confirm the result. Risk-limiting audit A post-election audit that checks a statistical sample of paper ballots to confirm, with high confidence, that the reported winner is correct. Same-day voter registration A system letting eligible people register and vote on the same day, including on Election Day in some states. Signature verification The check in which election officials compare the signature on a mail ballot envelope with the one on file for that voter. Voter ID A requirement that voters show identification, such as a driver's license or other documents, to cast a ballot. Voter roll maintenance The process of updating voter registration lists by removing people who have died, moved or become ineligible.